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Feminists believe that women are unequal to men, and the different groups think it is down to different reasons. Liberal feminists think it is because it is down to gender role socialisation. Marxist feminists believe it is down to capitalism. Radical feminists think women are not equal to men because of relationships within the home,
gafas sol oakley, and black feminist think they are unequal not just because they are women, but also because of their skin colour. All groups of feminists also believe that women are subordinated due to patriarchy, (the idea that males are dominant). However there are opposing explanations to gender inequality in the Dual Market Labour Theory, the Human Capital Theory and the Hakim debate.
Liberal feminists, such as Ann Oakley argue that gender role socialisation is responsible for sexual division of labour. Girls and boys are socialised in different ways. For example girls are encouraged to take on caring roles, which could lead to them having jobs such as nurses in the future. 3 agents of socialisation the family, the school and the media have an influence on the way boys and girls are socialised. For example, in the home there is manipulation and canalisation. Manipulation is when boys and girls are encouraged to play with gender specific toys. Canalisation is when specific behaviour is encouraged or discouraged. For example if a boy falls over and hurts himself, he is encouraged not to cry and to act in a brave way. On the other hand, if the same thing happened to a girl, she would be given more sympathy. Ann Oakley argues that there is still an expectation for women to take on the housewife/mother role. Because of this, it is more difficult for women to pursue careers as men do. Oakley also claims that employers expect women to play the role of housewife rather than pursue a career. This patriarchal ideology is justified by men through claims that women are more suited to caring roles because of their maternal instinct. However, recently some liberal feminists such as Sue Sharpe have been more optimistic. She has said that not all women take on caring roles because of their socialisation. They may react against their socialisation, or pursue a career. Liberal feminism has been criticised because it tends to assume that all women accept their gender identities in a passive way. Liberal feminism also does not take race or class into consideration. Marxist feminists believe women's subordination is down to the influence of capitalism. Women are seen as a reserve army of labour.' Companies only hire them when they really need them, and they do less important jobs than men, making them more disposable. Women change jobs more frequently than men, so are more vulnerable at times of redundancy, they tend to be less skilled, and capitalist ideologies locate women in the home. The reserve army of labour theory has been criticised as it fails to explain why there are women's jobs and men's jobs. It is seems to overlook the fact that patriarchy can be influential by itself. The Marxist feminists seem to imply that once capitalism is abolished, gender inequality will disappear, which might not actually be the case. Radical feminists, such as Elizabeth Stanko argue that women's inequality begins in the home, and then extends outwards in the rest of society. in the government and the media. Radical feminists focus on power relationships between men and women in private. They claim that men exploit and control women within the home. They also claim that when the patriarchy ideology fails, (when women do not dress and act as they are told to) then men resort to domestic violence in order to control them. Therefore, it is not capitalism that controls and exploits women; it is men themselves within the home. Women are disadvantaged in the labour market because within the home they are forced by men to be housewives and mothers. Radical feminism has been criticised by Marxist feminist for focusing on just one source of gender inequality; the home. They don't take into account the fact that capitalism could be contributing to women being disadvantaged in terms of employment. they assume patriarchy is the same in all societies and cultures. However this may not be the case if you for example look at patriarchy in Asian cultures and white cultures, it might be quite different. Black Feminism essentially argues that sexism and racism are inextricable from one another. Forms of feminism that strive to overcome sexism and class oppression but ignore or minimize race can perpetuate racism and thereby contribute to the oppression of many people, including women. Black feminists argue that the liberation of Black women entails freedom for all people, since it would require the end of racism, sexism, and class oppression.
There are differing explanations for gender inequality. One of these is from Catherine Hakim. She argues that women are not forced to stay at home to be housewives and mothers, but they choose to. They are responsible for their own disadvantages in the labour market, because they actively choose to take career breaks to have children. She is saying women are not as committed to their careers as men, and prefer to be supported by someone else. However, this theory has been criticised by feminists. They say that most of the time it is down to employer's attitudes rather than women's own choices. Hakim is blaming the victim for the problem rather than the employers that discriminate against them. Hakim cannot explain why even those women who do not choose to have children are still discriminated against, and in many cases paid less than men in the same job. Human Capital Theory argues that women are disadvantaged in terms of employment due to their lack of commitment to their careers. Women often choose to take career breaks so they can raise a family. Therefore they have less to gain in working towards educational and training qualifications. Because of this, they tend to have less appeal to employers than men. It is harder for them to get promoted to higher status, better paid jobs. Human capital theory has been criticized by Anne Witz, who says that even women who do not have career breaks tend to end up in lower paid and lower status jobs than men. Furthermore Peter Sloane did a survey and found that women still earn significantly less than men with similar qualifications. Dual labour market theory suggests there are 2 labour markets; the primary labour market, and the secondary labour market. These 2 sectors often coexist within a company. The primary labour market includes professional and managerial workers,
anteojos oakley, while the secondary labour market includes unskilled or semiskilled manual or nonmanual workers. According to Barron and Norris dual labour markets result from the tactics employers use to obtain the types of labour they require. The primary labour market workers are seen as more important. They have more skills, and are offered more benefits by the company. The secondary labour market workers are seen as ore disposable. They can be easily replaced as they fewer skills. As a result, there is less incentive for employers to give them high wages, job security or promotion. Both men and women are in the secondary sector, but Barron and Norris believe women are more likely to be in this sector. Employers tend to see them as more suited to this sector,
oakley tienda, and as having less interest in gaining new skills. It is hard for women to get a hold in the primary sector because, they tend to have a lower status in society. Once women are in the secondary sector, it is very hard to move up to the primary level. Veronica Beechey has criticised dual market labour theory. She claims that some women in skilled manual jobs still receive low pay, even though their work is very similar to primary sector men's jobs. The theory also cannot explain why women gain promotion less often than men, even when doing the same jobs.
The most convincing feminist explanation for gender inequality are: liberal feminism and Marxist feminist. Liberal feminism focuses on gender role socialisation. I think this is important, as people socialise boys and girls differently from an early age, without even realising it. As girls are encouraged to take on caring roles when they are young,
gafas oakley baratas, they are more likely to be a nurse or care worker when they grow up, as opposed to the manager of a company. In schools some subjects are biased towards boys. For example in science, something could be explained in terms of football,
oakley venta, making it more appealing to boys and harder for girls to listen into. The media also plays a significant role in gender socialisation. For example women are portrayed as housewives in adverts for cleaning products. Although there would probably still be a certain level of patriarchy if capitalism was abolished, I still think capitalism should not be underestimated in the way it contributes to women's inequality with men. In a capitalist economy things move quickly. If, for example a woman had a career break for 5 years to raise children, then came back to work, she might not be able to get her old job back. She might have to have a lessskilled job, as she no longer has the skills needed for the old job. Also, employers do view women as a reserve army of labour,' and only employ them when they need them to do less skilled jobs. If a woman is likely to have a baby or only work part time, then it is not worth it for the employer to train her to do a more skilled job. As a result women as employees are more disposable, and earn significantly less than men.
Although on the whole I find the feminist theories more convincing, I think the dual labour market theory is good at explaining gender inequality. Employers assume women are not as committed to their career as men, and might take a career break. Therefore they do not give them a chance to be promoted to the primary sector.
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